ART AND ARCHITECTURE
On seeing the royal palace, a Chinese traveller remarked, "These palaces are so beautiful and excellent that they appear to be the creation of God rather than of men". Chandragupta Maurya built his capital and palace, apparently of wood, at Pataliputra. Asoka further improved the walls and buildings of the capital and built attractive edifices. The palace is said to have been destroyed in a fire.
The Mauryas introduced stone masonry on a large scale. A palace, remains of which have been found at Kumrahar near Patna, probably had an SO-pillared hall, and the stumps of pillars testify to the skill of polishing attained by the artisans of the time.
It was during Asoka's reign that the art of sculpture and rock-cutting attained great heights. The four rock-cut sanctuaries on the Barabar hills and three on Nagarjuni hills near Gaya, Bihar, bear testimony to this. The seven sanctuaries are among the earliest examples of rock-cut architecture and sculpture in India. Asoka's pillars represent the best of Mauryan art. These are built out of single rocks and bear capitals decorated with animal, bird or human figures.
The Asokan pillar at Sarnath from which independent India has adopted its state emblem is a major work of art. Asoka also constructed stupas or solid dome-like structures of rock or brick for preserving the relics of Buddha. Some of the stupas survive to this day. Mauryan art is also represented in caves built during the period. Caves were constructed out of hard, refractory rock and were used as assembly halls on religions occasions. It was in the Mauryan times that burnt bricks were first used in north-eastern India.
LITERATURE
Chandragupta and Bindusara favoured Sanskrit and brahmanical learning, but Asokan inscriptions were composed mainly in Prakrit language and in Brahmi script though he also used Kharoshthi and Greek scripts in the North-West. Works such as Arthashastra of Kautilya, the Knlpasutra of Bhadrabahu, and the Buddhist scripture Kntha Vathu belong to this period.
Friday, November 27, 2009
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
There was all-round progress in ab' i.:.]1ture, trade and industry, Basically, the economy was "t;:,n'::-- .nd the majority of the population were agriculturists.}-. ::-l~ were also engaged in animal-husbandry and cattle-breeding which meant additional income to peasants and the state. In the sphere of trade and industry, the state had monopoly over mining and the production of many trade articles such as liquor and arms. Indian silk and cotton were in much demand in western countries. The existence of srenis (guilds), which managed both internal and external trade, many industries and the banking system also proves that trade and industry were not only well organised but were also conducted on a large scale. There were coins of different metals for the purpose of exchange. The most popular amongst them were nishka, a gold coin; purana, a silver coin; and karshapana, a copper coin.
The economic organisation was characterised by heavy taxation by the state Roads helped in trade and transportation. The royal highway between Taxila and Pataliputra was the ancestor of the Grand Trunk Road of today. Pataliputra was also connected to the eastern port of Tamralipti.
There was all-round progress in ab' i.:.]1ture, trade and industry, Basically, the economy was "t;:,n'::-- .nd the majority of the population were agriculturists.}-. ::-l~ were also engaged in animal-husbandry and cattle-breeding which meant additional income to peasants and the state. In the sphere of trade and industry, the state had monopoly over mining and the production of many trade articles such as liquor and arms. Indian silk and cotton were in much demand in western countries. The existence of srenis (guilds), which managed both internal and external trade, many industries and the banking system also proves that trade and industry were not only well organised but were also conducted on a large scale. There were coins of different metals for the purpose of exchange. The most popular amongst them were nishka, a gold coin; purana, a silver coin; and karshapana, a copper coin.
The economic organisation was characterised by heavy taxation by the state Roads helped in trade and transportation. The royal highway between Taxila and Pataliputra was the ancestor of the Grand Trunk Road of today. Pataliputra was also connected to the eastern port of Tamralipti.
RELIGION
RELIGION
Hinduism, Buddhism and ]ainism were the popular religions at the time and there existed some rivalry between them. However, on the whole, religious toleration was the order of the day. Hinduism underwent changes. Krishna, Balaram, Siva, Indra and rivers like Ganga, Yamuna were worshipped as gods and goddesses. Yajnas were 'performed but animal sacrifices had lost much of their importance. Image worship was still not in vogue.
Asoka's Dhamma Asoka's personal religion was Buddhism, as he has admitted in the Bhabru edict, but he did not thrust it on the population. In fact, he evolved an ethical code which was the essence of all religions and propagated it as 'Dhamma'. The Dhamma consisted of such principles as respecting and obeying one's elders and teachers, treating the young with affection, maintaining good relations with neighbours, treating animals kindly, tolerating others' religions, adhering to truth, practising charity, simplicity and piety, and leading a virtuous life.
Why did Asoka fonnulate Dhamma? Chandragupta's well organised administrative machinery and Asoka's dhamma policy were the two remarkable features of the Mauryan rule in ancient India. In fact, Asoka's dhamma is even more remarkable than Chandragupta's administrative set-up. It is dhamma that has made Asoka one of the greatest rulers in Indian history.
There were several factors that prompted Asoka to
formulate the policy.
(i) The Mauryan imperial set-up encompassed various cultures, beliefs and social and political trends. So Asoka was left with only two options to control so complex an empire: maintaining the structure by force or defining a set of social order which would be acceptable to all. Asoka wisely opted for the latter. Hence the policy of dhamma.
(ii) The rise of Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivikism-all opposed to the domination of the Brahmans-generated tensions in society. These heterodox sects had a growing number of followers. But Brahmans still commanded a strong hold on society. Given the situation, hostility among different sects seemed inevitable. Hence Asoka developed dhamma to bring about a climate of harmony and mutual trust in society.
(iii) Within the empire, there were some areas where neither the Brahmanical system nor the heterodox sects had an access. The example of the Yavanas country, as referred by Asoka himself, may be mentioned in this context. Hence, the need of a mechanism envisaging some common pattern of social behaviour and common approach to the problems of society was felt.
Hinduism, Buddhism and ]ainism were the popular religions at the time and there existed some rivalry between them. However, on the whole, religious toleration was the order of the day. Hinduism underwent changes. Krishna, Balaram, Siva, Indra and rivers like Ganga, Yamuna were worshipped as gods and goddesses. Yajnas were 'performed but animal sacrifices had lost much of their importance. Image worship was still not in vogue.
Asoka's Dhamma Asoka's personal religion was Buddhism, as he has admitted in the Bhabru edict, but he did not thrust it on the population. In fact, he evolved an ethical code which was the essence of all religions and propagated it as 'Dhamma'. The Dhamma consisted of such principles as respecting and obeying one's elders and teachers, treating the young with affection, maintaining good relations with neighbours, treating animals kindly, tolerating others' religions, adhering to truth, practising charity, simplicity and piety, and leading a virtuous life.
Why did Asoka fonnulate Dhamma? Chandragupta's well organised administrative machinery and Asoka's dhamma policy were the two remarkable features of the Mauryan rule in ancient India. In fact, Asoka's dhamma is even more remarkable than Chandragupta's administrative set-up. It is dhamma that has made Asoka one of the greatest rulers in Indian history.
There were several factors that prompted Asoka to
formulate the policy.
(i) The Mauryan imperial set-up encompassed various cultures, beliefs and social and political trends. So Asoka was left with only two options to control so complex an empire: maintaining the structure by force or defining a set of social order which would be acceptable to all. Asoka wisely opted for the latter. Hence the policy of dhamma.
(ii) The rise of Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivikism-all opposed to the domination of the Brahmans-generated tensions in society. These heterodox sects had a growing number of followers. But Brahmans still commanded a strong hold on society. Given the situation, hostility among different sects seemed inevitable. Hence Asoka developed dhamma to bring about a climate of harmony and mutual trust in society.
(iii) Within the empire, there were some areas where neither the Brahmanical system nor the heterodox sects had an access. The example of the Yavanas country, as referred by Asoka himself, may be mentioned in this context. Hence, the need of a mechanism envisaging some common pattern of social behaviour and common approach to the problems of society was felt.
SOCIETY
SOCIETY
Megasthenese writes that people were very honest and that their moral standard was very high. They were happy and led a simple life. The standard of living was also very high as the state had become prosperous due to good administration and increase in trade. They enjoyed meals of different kinds and used gold and silver ornaments as well.
The caste system had become very rigid. To change one's caste was almost impossible. According to. Megasthenese, Indian society comprised of seven castes or classes. This idea of Indian society is not wholly correct as the division was based on occupation and not on caste. In the reign of Asoka, the caste system had become somewhat loose and lost its strictness. The position of women had also undergone a change. Though they were respected they had to face discrimination. Purdah system was not known but the practice of sati had commenced, though only in rare cases. Polygamy was prevalent among the royal family members. Further, Megasthenese writes that the slave system was not known. But some historians do not agree with Megasthenese on this point: they say that slavery was present in India but it differed in form and nature from that in Greece, Rome, etc. The Arthashastra mentions that slaves were employed in agriculture.
Megasthenese writes that people were very honest and that their moral standard was very high. They were happy and led a simple life. The standard of living was also very high as the state had become prosperous due to good administration and increase in trade. They enjoyed meals of different kinds and used gold and silver ornaments as well.
The caste system had become very rigid. To change one's caste was almost impossible. According to. Megasthenese, Indian society comprised of seven castes or classes. This idea of Indian society is not wholly correct as the division was based on occupation and not on caste. In the reign of Asoka, the caste system had become somewhat loose and lost its strictness. The position of women had also undergone a change. Though they were respected they had to face discrimination. Purdah system was not known but the practice of sati had commenced, though only in rare cases. Polygamy was prevalent among the royal family members. Further, Megasthenese writes that the slave system was not known. But some historians do not agree with Megasthenese on this point: they say that slavery was present in India but it differed in form and nature from that in Greece, Rome, etc. The Arthashastra mentions that slaves were employed in agriculture.
The Pillar Edicts
The Pillar Edicts The pillar edicts of Asoka may be divided into two groups: major and minor.
There are seven major pillar edicts:
Pillar Edict I It mentions Asoka's principle to protect people through dhamma, to administer affairs according to dhamma, to please the people with dhamma, and to guard the empire with dhamma.
Pillar Edict II It defines dhamma as a minimum of sins, many virtues, compassion, liberality, truthfulness and purity.
Pillar Edict III It exhorts people to consider that cruelty, harshness, anger, pride and envy are sins, the indulgence in which is ruinous.
Pillar Edict IV Engraved in the 26th year of Asoka's rule, this edict deals with the duties of rajukas.
Pillar Edict V It provides a list of animals and birds which should not be killed on some days and others which are not to be killed at all. It also mentions the release of 25 prisoners by Asoka.
Pillar Edict VI It mentions Asoka's engraving of dhamma policy after 12 years of his rule. Pillar Edict VII Inscribed in the twenty-eighth year of Asoka's rule, it describes at length the works done by Asoka for spreading dhamma policy.
Asoka's seven major pillar edicts have been found at the following places: Topra (Delhi), Meerut, Kausambi (Allahabad), Rampurva (Champaran), Lauriya- Nanrlangarh (Champaran), Lauriya Areraj (Champaran) ~d Mehrauli (Delhi).
The Minor Pillar Edicts have been found in Sanchi, Saranath, Rummindei and Nigalisagar. These edicts deal with Buddhist pilgrim centres, pilgrimage and solution of differences in the Buddhist religion.
Rummindei Pillar Inscription It mentions Asoka's visit to Lumbini, the birth place of Lord Buddha. Asoka exempted Lumbini from paying tax, and fixed its contribution of grain at one-eighth.
Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription It mentions Asoka's visit to Konakamana stupa in the fifteenth year of his rule. Schism Edict The pillar edicts at Sarnath and Sanchi are known as Schism edicts. These edicts are addressed to dharmamahamatras.
Language of the Asokan Inscriptions Asoka's inscriptions are written in four languages-Aramaic, Greek, Iranian, and Prakrit. Four scripts have been used in these inscriptions-Aramaic, Greek, Brahmi and Kharoshthi. The Mansehra and Shahbajgarhi inscriptions are in the Kharosthi script, while the Kandahar inscription is in Greek and Aramaic scripts. The remaining inscriptions are in the Brahmi script.
There are seven major pillar edicts:
Pillar Edict I It mentions Asoka's principle to protect people through dhamma, to administer affairs according to dhamma, to please the people with dhamma, and to guard the empire with dhamma.
Pillar Edict II It defines dhamma as a minimum of sins, many virtues, compassion, liberality, truthfulness and purity.
Pillar Edict III It exhorts people to consider that cruelty, harshness, anger, pride and envy are sins, the indulgence in which is ruinous.
Pillar Edict IV Engraved in the 26th year of Asoka's rule, this edict deals with the duties of rajukas.
Pillar Edict V It provides a list of animals and birds which should not be killed on some days and others which are not to be killed at all. It also mentions the release of 25 prisoners by Asoka.
Pillar Edict VI It mentions Asoka's engraving of dhamma policy after 12 years of his rule. Pillar Edict VII Inscribed in the twenty-eighth year of Asoka's rule, it describes at length the works done by Asoka for spreading dhamma policy.
Asoka's seven major pillar edicts have been found at the following places: Topra (Delhi), Meerut, Kausambi (Allahabad), Rampurva (Champaran), Lauriya- Nanrlangarh (Champaran), Lauriya Areraj (Champaran) ~d Mehrauli (Delhi).
The Minor Pillar Edicts have been found in Sanchi, Saranath, Rummindei and Nigalisagar. These edicts deal with Buddhist pilgrim centres, pilgrimage and solution of differences in the Buddhist religion.
Rummindei Pillar Inscription It mentions Asoka's visit to Lumbini, the birth place of Lord Buddha. Asoka exempted Lumbini from paying tax, and fixed its contribution of grain at one-eighth.
Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription It mentions Asoka's visit to Konakamana stupa in the fifteenth year of his rule. Schism Edict The pillar edicts at Sarnath and Sanchi are known as Schism edicts. These edicts are addressed to dharmamahamatras.
Language of the Asokan Inscriptions Asoka's inscriptions are written in four languages-Aramaic, Greek, Iranian, and Prakrit. Four scripts have been used in these inscriptions-Aramaic, Greek, Brahmi and Kharoshthi. The Mansehra and Shahbajgarhi inscriptions are in the Kharosthi script, while the Kandahar inscription is in Greek and Aramaic scripts. The remaining inscriptions are in the Brahmi script.
The Rock Edicts
The Rock Edicts The rock edicts of Asoka are of two types: major rock edicts and minor rock edicts.
There are 14 major rock edicts. Miljor Rock Edict I It bans festive gatherings and the killing of animals. At the time of writing this edict only three animals-two peacocks and a deer-were killed in the kitchen of Asoka's palace, though the king wished to discontinue this practice. (It is not, however, clear whether the ban on killing refers to all animals or those that were 'protected'. There is also a possibility that the ban is on sacrifice of animals.)
Major Rock Edict II It mentions Chola, Pandya, Satyaputra and Keralpautra kingdoms in South India. It provides for the medical care of man and the care of animals.
Major Rock Edict III It was issued after 12 years of Asoka's consecration. The yuktas (subordinate officers) with the rajukas (rural officers) and the pradesikas (heads of districts) shall go on tour every five years to spread the dhamma policy. The edict is generous to brahmans and sramanas.
Miljor Rock Edict IV It declares dhammaghosh and not the bherighosh to be the ideal of human beings.
Major Rock Edict V It mentions for the first time of dharma-mahamatras and expresses concern over public welfare policy regarding slaves and masters.
Major Rock Edict VI It speaks of well being of the people, and the king's desire to be informed constantly about the condition of the people.
Miljor Rock Edict VII It requests for tolerance for all religions.
Major Rock Edict VIII It speaks of the beginning of Dhammayatra and reports that the first Dhammayatra was for Bodh Gaya in the tenth year of Asoka's ruling.
Major Rock Edict IX It condemns various popular ceremonies.
Miljor Rock Edict X It condemns the desires for fame and glory, and calls for implementation of the policy of dhamma.
Major Rock Edict XI It elaborates dhamma and mentions its spread.
Miljor Rock Edict XII It makes a direct and determined
request for tolerance among different religious sects.
Miljor Rock Edict XIII It speaks of Asoka's annexation of Kalinga. It mentions Asoka's victory by dhamma over Greek kings, Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas, Alexander and, in south India, over the Chola, Pandya, and Andhra kingdoms. It also mentions the atrocious Atwik tribe.
Miljor Rock Edict XIV It mentions the engraving of inscriptions by Asoka in different parts of the country.
Asoka engraved two separate rock edicts in place of XI, XII and XIII rock edicts. These separate rock edicts have been found at sites in Kalinga.
Separate Edict I (Dhauli and Jaugada) It is addressed to the mahamatras of Tosali and Samapa. Asoka declared' All people are my sons'.
Separate Edict II It is also addressed to the mahamatras of Tosali and Samapa. It provides for proclamation of the edict even to a single person.
Asoka's major rock edicts have been found at the following sites: Mansehra (Hazara), Shahbajgarhi (peshawar), Kalsi (Dehradun), Girnar Ounagarh), Sopara (Thana), Dhauli (Purl), Jougarh (Ganjam), Iragudo (Kuroool), Roopnath Oabalpur), Bairat Oaipur), Sasaram (Shahabad), Gavimatha, Palaki and Gundu- (Hyderabad), and Yerragudi (Chittal Durga).
The minor rock inscriptions, related to Asoka's faith in Buddhism, include the minor rock edicts, the Queen's edict, the Barabar cave inscriptions and Kandahar inscriptions.
Minor Rock Edict Carved by the engraver Capada, this edict speaks of Asoka becoming a more ardent follower of Buddhism.
The Queen's Edict It mentions Asoka's second queen, the mother of TIvala, Karuvaki.
Barabar Cave Inscription It mentions Asoka's giving away the Barabar cave to the Ajivika sect in the twelfth year of the King's consecration.
Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription Issued ten years after the adoption of dhamma policy by Asoka, it expresses satisfaction over the implementation of Asoka's policy.
There are 14 major rock edicts. Miljor Rock Edict I It bans festive gatherings and the killing of animals. At the time of writing this edict only three animals-two peacocks and a deer-were killed in the kitchen of Asoka's palace, though the king wished to discontinue this practice. (It is not, however, clear whether the ban on killing refers to all animals or those that were 'protected'. There is also a possibility that the ban is on sacrifice of animals.)
Major Rock Edict II It mentions Chola, Pandya, Satyaputra and Keralpautra kingdoms in South India. It provides for the medical care of man and the care of animals.
Major Rock Edict III It was issued after 12 years of Asoka's consecration. The yuktas (subordinate officers) with the rajukas (rural officers) and the pradesikas (heads of districts) shall go on tour every five years to spread the dhamma policy. The edict is generous to brahmans and sramanas.
Miljor Rock Edict IV It declares dhammaghosh and not the bherighosh to be the ideal of human beings.
Major Rock Edict V It mentions for the first time of dharma-mahamatras and expresses concern over public welfare policy regarding slaves and masters.
Major Rock Edict VI It speaks of well being of the people, and the king's desire to be informed constantly about the condition of the people.
Miljor Rock Edict VII It requests for tolerance for all religions.
Major Rock Edict VIII It speaks of the beginning of Dhammayatra and reports that the first Dhammayatra was for Bodh Gaya in the tenth year of Asoka's ruling.
Major Rock Edict IX It condemns various popular ceremonies.
Miljor Rock Edict X It condemns the desires for fame and glory, and calls for implementation of the policy of dhamma.
Major Rock Edict XI It elaborates dhamma and mentions its spread.
Miljor Rock Edict XII It makes a direct and determined
request for tolerance among different religious sects.
Miljor Rock Edict XIII It speaks of Asoka's annexation of Kalinga. It mentions Asoka's victory by dhamma over Greek kings, Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas, Alexander and, in south India, over the Chola, Pandya, and Andhra kingdoms. It also mentions the atrocious Atwik tribe.
Miljor Rock Edict XIV It mentions the engraving of inscriptions by Asoka in different parts of the country.
Asoka engraved two separate rock edicts in place of XI, XII and XIII rock edicts. These separate rock edicts have been found at sites in Kalinga.
Separate Edict I (Dhauli and Jaugada) It is addressed to the mahamatras of Tosali and Samapa. Asoka declared' All people are my sons'.
Separate Edict II It is also addressed to the mahamatras of Tosali and Samapa. It provides for proclamation of the edict even to a single person.
Asoka's major rock edicts have been found at the following sites: Mansehra (Hazara), Shahbajgarhi (peshawar), Kalsi (Dehradun), Girnar Ounagarh), Sopara (Thana), Dhauli (Purl), Jougarh (Ganjam), Iragudo (Kuroool), Roopnath Oabalpur), Bairat Oaipur), Sasaram (Shahabad), Gavimatha, Palaki and Gundu- (Hyderabad), and Yerragudi (Chittal Durga).
The minor rock inscriptions, related to Asoka's faith in Buddhism, include the minor rock edicts, the Queen's edict, the Barabar cave inscriptions and Kandahar inscriptions.
Minor Rock Edict Carved by the engraver Capada, this edict speaks of Asoka becoming a more ardent follower of Buddhism.
The Queen's Edict It mentions Asoka's second queen, the mother of TIvala, Karuvaki.
Barabar Cave Inscription It mentions Asoka's giving away the Barabar cave to the Ajivika sect in the twelfth year of the King's consecration.
Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription Issued ten years after the adoption of dhamma policy by Asoka, it expresses satisfaction over the implementation of Asoka's policy.
ASOKA'S EDICTS
ASOKA'S EDICTS
Asokan inscriptions have been found from many areas of the Indian subcontinent. The inscriptions are incised either on pillars of stone or on rocks and consist of major and minor edicts. Asoka used the medium of his edicts to expound the policy of Dhamma.
The search for Asokan inscriptions began in 1750. The same year Padrefenthailar discovered an Asokan pillar in Delhi. In 1837, James Prinsep deciphered the earliest known Indian script, Brahmi, and read the name of Asoka as Devanampiya Piyadassi. It is not, however, clear whether the ban on killing refers to all animals or those that were 'protected'. There is also a possibility that the ban is on sacrifice of animals. The Asokan inscriptions may be divided into three groups-rock edicts, pillar edicts and cave edicts. .
Asokan inscriptions have been found from many areas of the Indian subcontinent. The inscriptions are incised either on pillars of stone or on rocks and consist of major and minor edicts. Asoka used the medium of his edicts to expound the policy of Dhamma.
The search for Asokan inscriptions began in 1750. The same year Padrefenthailar discovered an Asokan pillar in Delhi. In 1837, James Prinsep deciphered the earliest known Indian script, Brahmi, and read the name of Asoka as Devanampiya Piyadassi. It is not, however, clear whether the ban on killing refers to all animals or those that were 'protected'. There is also a possibility that the ban is on sacrifice of animals. The Asokan inscriptions may be divided into three groups-rock edicts, pillar edicts and cave edicts. .
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